Eiffel
Tower
|
|
La Tour
Eiffel
|
|
 |
|
Record height
|
|
Tallest in
the world from 1889 to 1930[I]
|
|
General information
|
|
Type
|
|
Location
|
|
Construction
started
|
1887
|
Completed
|
1889
|
Opening
|
31
March 1889
|
Height
|
|
Antenna
spire
|
324.00 m
(1,063 ft)
|
Roof
|
300.65 m
(986 ft)
|
Top
floor
|
273.00 m
(896 ft)
|
Technical details
|
|
Floor
count
|
3
|
Elevator
count
|
9
|
Design and construction
|
|
Owner
|
City of Paris, France (100%)
|
Management
|
Société
d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SETE)
|
Main
contractor
|
Gustave Eiffel & Cie
|
Architect
|
|
Structural
engineer
|
|
View
from the Trocadéro
The
Eiffel Tower (French: La Tour Eiffel, [tuʁ ɛfɛl], nickname La
dame de fer, the iron lady) is a wrought iron lattice tower located on the Champ de Mars in Paris.
Built in 1889, it has become both a global icon of France
and one of the most recognizable structures in the world. The tower is the tallest building in Paris[10] and the most-visited paid
monument in the world;
millions
of people ascend it every year. Named after its designer, engineer Gustave Eiffel, the tower
was built as the entrance arch to the 1889
World's Fair.
The
tower stands 324 metres (1,063 ft) tall, about the same height as an
81-storey building. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to assume
the title of the tallest man-made structure in the world, a title it held for
41 years, until the Chrysler Building in New York
City was built in 1930. However, due to the addition, in 1957, of the antenna
atop the Eiffel Tower, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building. Not
including broadcast antennas, it is the second-tallest
structure in France, after the Millau Viaduct.
The
tower has three levels for visitors. Tickets can be purchased to ascend, by stairs
or lift, to the first and second levels. The
walk from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the walk
from the first to the second level. The third and highest level is accessible
only by elevator. Both the first and second levels feature restaurants.
The
tower has become the most prominent symbol of both Paris
and France,
often in the establishing shot of films
set in the city.
Eiffel Tower under construction in July 1888
Eiffel
Tower Construction view: girders at the first storey
History
25
August 1944: American soldiers watch as the Tricolor flies from the Eiffel
Tower again.
Franz Reichelt's
preparations and fall from the Eiffel Tower.
Lightning
strikes the Eiffel Tower on 3 June 1902, at 9:20 pm
Adolf
Hitler with the Eiffel Tower in the background
The
structure was built between 1887 and 1889 as the entrance arch for the Exposition
Universelle,
a World's Fair marking the centennial
celebration of the French Revolution. Three
hundred workers joined together 18,038 pieces of wrought iron using two and a half million
rivets, in a structural design by Maurice Koechlin. Eiffel was
assisted in the design by engineers Émile Nouguier and Maurice Koechlin and
architect Stephen Sauvestre.[11] The risk of accident was
great as, unlike modern skyscrapers, the tower is an open frame without any
intermediate floors except the two platforms. However, because Eiffel took
safety precautions, including the use of movable stagings, guard-rails and
screens, only one man died. The tower was inaugurated on 31 March 1889, and opened
on 6 May.
The
tower was much criticised by the public when it was built, with many calling it
an eyesore. Newspapers of the day were filled with angry letters from the arts
community of Paris. One is quoted extensively in William Watson's US Government
Printing Office publication of 1892 Paris Universal Exposition: Civil
Engineering, Public Works, and Architecture: "And during twenty years
we shall see, stretching over the entire city, still thrilling with the genius
of so many centuries, we shall see stretching out like a black blot the odious
shadow of the odious column built up of riveted iron plates."[12] Signers of this letter
included Jean-Louis-Ernest
Meissonier,
Charles Gounod, Charles
Garnier,
Jean-Léon Gérôme, William-Adolphe
Bouguereau,
and Alexandre Dumas.
Novelist
Guy de Maupassant—who claimed
to hate the tower[13]—supposedly ate lunch in the
Tower's restaurant every day. When asked why, he answered that it was the one
place in Paris where one could not see the structure. Today, the Tower is
widely considered to be a striking piece of structural art.
One
of the great Hollywood movie clichés is that the view from a Parisian window
always includes the tower. In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the
height of most buildings in Paris to 7 stories, only a very few of the taller
buildings have a clear view of the tower.
Eiffel
had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years; it was to be dismantled in
1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris. The City
had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a
tower was that it could be easily demolished) but as the tower proved valuable
for communication purposes, it was allowed to remain after the expiry of the
permit. The military used it to dispatch Parisian taxis to the front line
during the First Battle
of the Marne.
Timeline of events
10
September 1889
To M Eiffel
the Engineer the brave builder of so gigantic and original specimen of modern
Engineering from one who has the greatest respect and admiration for all
Engineers including the Great Engineer the Bon Dieu, Thomas Edison.
1910
Father
Theodor Wulf measured radiant energy at the top
and bottom of the tower, discovering at the top more than was expected, and
thereby detecting what are today known as cosmic rays.[14]
4
February 1912
Austrian
tailor Franz Reichelt died after
jumping 60 metres from the first deck of Eiffel tower with his home-made parachute.
1914
A radio
transmitter located in the tower jammed German radio communications during the
lead-up to the First Battle
of the Marne.
1925
The con
artist Victor Lustig "sold" the tower
for scrap metal on two separate, but related occasions.[15]
1930
The tower
lost the title of the world's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building was
completed in New York City.
1925
to 1934
Illuminated
signs for Citroën adorned three of the tower's four
sides, making it the tallest advertising space in the world at the time.
1940–1944
[citation
needed] Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables
were cut by the French so that Adolf Hitler would have to climb the steps
to the summit. The parts to repair them were allegedly impossible to obtain
because of the war. In 1940 German soldiers had to
climb to the top to hoist the swastika, but the flag was so large it blew
away just a few hours later, and was replaced by a smaller one. When visiting
Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground. It was said that Hitler conquered
France, but did not conquer the Eiffel Tower. A Frenchman scaled the tower
during the German occupation to hang the French flag. In August 1944, when the Allies were nearing
Paris, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von
Choltitz,
the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of
the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the order. Some say Hitler was later persuaded
to keep the tower intact so it could later be used for communications. The
lifts of the Tower were working normally within hours of the Liberation of Paris.
3
January 1956
A fire
damaged the top of the tower.
1957
The present
radio antenna was added to the top.
1980s
A restaurant
and its supporting iron scaffolding midway up the tower was dismantled; it was
purchased and reconstructed on St. Charles Avenue and Josephine Street in the
Garden District of New Orleans,
Louisiana,
by entrepreneurs John Onorio and Daniel Bonnot, originally as the Tour Eiffel
Restaurant, later as the Red Room and now as the Cricket Club (owned by the New
Orleans Culinary Institute). The restaurant was re-assembled from 11,000 pieces
that crossed the Atlantic in a 40-foot (12 m) cargo container.
31
March 1984
1987
A.J. Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel
Tower, using a special cord he had helped develop. Hackett was arrested by the
Paris police upon reaching the ground.[17]
27
October 1991
Thierry Devaux, along with
mountain guide Hervé Calvayrac, performed a series of acrobatic figures of
bungee jump (not allowed) from the second floor of the Tower. Facing the Champ
de Mars, Thierry Devaux was using an electric winch between each figure to go
back up. When firemen arrived, he stopped after the sixth bungee jump.[18]
New
Year's Eve 1999
The Eiffel
Tower played host to Paris' Millennium Celebration. On this occasion, flashing
lights and four high-power searchlights were installed on the tower,
and fireworks were set off all over it. An exhibition above a cafeteria on the
first floor commemorates this event. Since then, the light show has become a
nightly event. The searchlights on top of the tower make it a beacon in Paris'
night sky, and the 20,000 flash bulbs give the tower a sparkly appearance every
hour on the hour.[19]
28
November 2002
2004
The Eiffel
Tower began hosting an ice skating rink on the first floor each winter.[22]
Engraved names
Main
article: The 72
names on the Eiffel Tower
Gustave
Eiffel engraved on the tower seventy-two names of French scientists, engineers
and other notable people. This engraving was painted over at the beginning of
the twentieth century but restored in 1986–1987 by the Société Nouvelle
d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, a company contracted to operate business
related to the Tower.
Design of the
tower
Material
The
pig iron structure of the Eiffel Tower weighs
7,300 tonnes, while the entire structure, including non-metal components, is
approximately 10,000 tonnes. As a demonstration of the economy of design,
if the 7,300 tonnes of the metal structure were melted down it would fill the
125-metre-square base to a depth of only 6 cm (2.36 in), assuming the
density of the metal to be 7.8 tonnes per cubic metre. Depending on the ambient
temperature, the top of the tower may shift away from the sun by up to 18 cm
(7.1 in) because of thermal expansion of the metal on the side facing the
sun.
Wind considerations
At
the time the tower was built many people were shocked by its daring shape.
Eiffel was criticised for the design and accused of trying to create something
artistic, or inartistic according to the viewer, without regard to engineering.
Eiffel and his engineers, however, as experienced bridge builders, understood
the importance of wind forces and knew that if they were going to build the
tallest structure in the world they had to be certain it would withstand the
wind. In an interview reported in the newspaper Le Temps, Eiffel said:
Now to what
phenomenon did I give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind resistance. Well then!
I hold that the curvature of the monument's four outer edges, which is as
mathematical calculation dictated it should be [...] will give a great
impression of strength and beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the
observer the boldness of the design as a whole.[23]
Researchers
have found that Eiffel used empirical and graphical methods accounting for the
effects of wind rather than a specific mathematical formula. Careful
examination of the tower shows a basically exponential shape; actually two
different exponentials, the lower section overdesigned to ensure resistance to
wind forces. Several mathematical explanations have been proposed over the
years for the success of the design; the most recent is described as a
nonlinear integral equation based on counterbalancing the wind pressure on any
point on the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that
point. As a demonstration of the
tower's effectiveness in wind resistance, it sways only 6–7 cm
(2–3 in) in the wind.
Maintenance
Maintenance
of the tower includes applying 50 to 60 tonnes of paint every seven years
to protect it from rust. The height of the Eiffel Tower varies by 15 cm due to
temperature.
Aesthetic considerations
In
order to maintain a uniform appearance to an observer on the ground, three
separate colours of paint are used on the tower, with the darkest on the bottom
and the lightest at the top. On occasion the colour of the paint is changed;
the tower is currently painted a shade of bronze.[27] On the first floor there are
interactive consoles hosting a poll for the colour to use for a future session
of painting.
The
only non-structural elements are the four decorative grillwork arches, added in
Stephen Sauvestre's sketches, which served to reassure visitors that the
structure was safe, and to frame views of other nearby architecture.[28][29][30]
Tourism
Popularity
More
than 200,000,000 people have visited the tower since its construction in 1889,[31] including 6,719,200 in 2006.[26] The tower is the most-visited
paid monument in the world.[32]
Passenger elevators
Ground
to the second level
The
original elevators to the first and second floors were provided by two
companies. Both companies had to overcome many technical obstacles as neither
company (or indeed any company) had experience with installing elevators
climbing to such heights with large loads. The slanting tracks with changing
angles further complicated the problems. The East and West elevators were
supplied by the French company Roux Combaluzier Lepape, using hydraulically
powered chains and rollers. The North and South elevators were provided by the
American company Otis using car designs similar to the original installation
but using an improved hydraulic and cable scheme. The French
elevators had a very poor performance and were replaced with the current
installations in 1897 (West Pillar) and 1899 (East Pillar) by Fives-Lille using
an improved hydraulic and rope scheme. Both of the original installations
operated broadly on the principle of the Fives-Lille lifts.[33][34]
The
Fives-Lille elevators from ground level to the first and second levels are
operated by cables and pulleys driven by massive water-powered pistons. The
hydraulic scheme was somewhat unusual for the time in that it included three
large counterweights of 200 tonnes each sitting on top of hydraulic rams which
doubled up as accumulators for the water. As the elevators ascend the inclined arc
of the pillars, the angle of ascent changes. The two elevator cabs are kept
more or less level and indeed are level at the landings. The cab floors do take
on a slight angle at times between landings.
The
principle behind the elevators is similar to the operation of a block and tackle but in
reverse. Two large hydraulic rams (over 1 metre diameter) with a 16 metre
travel are mounted horizontally in the base of the pillar which pushes a carriage
(the French word for it translates as chariot and this term will be used
henceforth to distinguish it from the elevator carriage) with 16 large triple
sheaves mounted on it. There are 14 similar sheaves mounted statically. Six
wire ropes are rove back and forth between the sheaves such that each rope
passes between the 2 sets of sheaves 7 times. The ropes then leave the final
sheaves on the chariot and passes up through a series of guiding sheaves to
above the second floor and then via a pair of triple sheaves back down to the
lift carriage again passing guiding sheaves.
This
arrangement means that the elevator carriage, complete with its cars and
passengers, travels 8 times the distance that the rams move the chariot, the
128 metres from the ground to the second floor. The force exerted by the rams
also has to be 8 times the total weight of the lift carriage, cars and
passengers, plus extra to account for various losses such as friction. The
hydraulic fluid was water, normally stored in three accumulators, complete with
counterbalance weights. To make the elevator ascend, water was pumped using an
electrically driven pump from the accumulators to the two rams. Since the
counterbalance weights provided much of the pressure required, the pump only
had to provide the extra effort. For the descent, it was only necessary to
allow the water to flow back to the accumulators using a control valve. The
lifts were operated by an operator perched precariously underneath the lift
cars. His position (with a dummy operator) can still be seen on the lifts
today.
The
Fives-Lille elevators were completely upgraded in 1986 to meet modern safety
requirements and to make the elevators easier to operate. A new computer
controlled system was installed which completely automated the operation. One
of the three counterbalances was taken out of use, and the cars were replaced
with a more modern and lighter structure. Most importantly, the main driving
force was removed from the original water pump such that the water hydraulic
system provided only a counterbalancing function. The main driving force was
transferred to a 320 kW electrically driven oil hydraulic pump which
drives a pair of hydraulic motors on the chariot itself, thus providing the
motive power. The new lift cars complete with their carriage and a full 92
passenger load weigh 22 tonnes.
Due
to elasticity in the ropes and the time taken to get the cars level with the
landings, each elevator in normal service takes an average of 8 minutes and 50
seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at
each floor. The average journey time between floors is just 1 minute.
The
original Otis elevators in the North and South pillars in their turn proved to
be inferior to the new (in 1899) French elevators and were scrapped from the
South pillar in 1900 and from the North pillar in 1913 after failed attempts to
re-power them with an electric motor. The North and South pillars were to
remain without elevators until 1965 when increasing visitor numbers persuaded
the operators to install a relatively standard and modern cable hoisted system
in the north pillar using a cable-hauled counterbalance weight, but hoisted by
a block and tackle system to reduce its travel to one third of the elevator
travel. The counterbalance is clearly visible within the structure of the North
pillar. This latter elevator was upgraded in 1995 with new cars and computer
controls.
The
South pillar acquired a completely new fairly standard electrically driven
elevator in 1983 to serve the Jules Verne restaurant. This was also supplied by
Otis. A further four-ton service elevator was added to the South pillar in 1989
by Otis to relieve the main elevators when moving relatively small loads or
even just maintenance personnel.
The
East and West hydraulic (water) elevator works are on display and, at least in
theory, are open to the public in a small museum located in base of the East
and West tower, which is somewhat hidden from public view. Because the massive
mechanism requires frequent lubrication and attention, public access is often
restricted. However, when open, the wait times are much less than the other,
more popular, attractions. The rope mechanism of the North tower is visible to
visitors as they exit from the elevator .
Second to the third level
The
original spiral stairs to the third floor which were only 80 centimetres wide.
Note also the small service elevator in the background.
The
original elevators from the second to the third floor were also of a
water-powered hydraulic design supplied by Léon Edoux. Instead of using a
separate counterbalance, the two elevator cars counterbalanced each other. A
pair of 81 metre long hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level reaching
nearly half way up to the third level. An elevator car was mounted on top of
the rams. Ropes ran from the top of this car up to a sheave on the third level and
back down to a second car. The result of this arrangement was that each car
only travelled half the distance between the second and third levels and
passengers were required to change elevators halfway walking between the cars
along a narrow gangway with a very impressive and relatively unobstructed
downward view. The ten-ton cars held 65 passengers each or up to four tons.
One
interesting feature of the original installation was that the hoisting rope ran
through guides to retain it on windy days to prevent it flapping and becoming
damaged. The guides were mechanically moved out of the way of the ascending car
by the movement of the car itself. In spite of some antifreeze being added to
the water that operated this system, it nevertheless had to close to the public
from November to March each year.
The
original Hydraulic pump for the Edoux lifts
The
original elevators complete with their hydraulic mechanism were completely
scrapped in 1982 after 97 years of service. They were replaced with two pairs
of relatively standard rope hoisted cars which were able to operate all the
year round. The cars operate in pairs with one providing the counterbalance for
the other. Neither car can move unless both sets of doors are closed and both
operators have given a start command. The commands from the cars to the
hoisting mechanism are by radio obviating the necessity of a control cable. The
replacement installation also has the advantage that the ascent can be made
without changing cars and has reduced the ascent time from 8 minutes (including
change) to 1 minute and 40 seconds. This installation also has guides for the
hoisting ropes but they are electrically operated. The guide once it has moved
out of the way as the car ascends automatically reverses when the car has
passed to prevent the mechanism becoming snagged on the car on the downward
journey in the event it has failed to completely clear the car. Unfortunately
these elevators do not have the capacity to move as many people as the three
public lower elevators and long lines to ascend to the third level are common.
Most of the intermediate level structure present on the tower today was
installed when the elevators were replaced and allows maintenance workers to
take the elevator half way.
The
replacement of these elevators allowed the restructuring of the criss-cross
beams in upper part of the tower and further allowed the installation of two
emergency staircases. These replaced the dangerous winding stairs that were
installed when the tower was constructed.
Restaurants
The
tower has two restaurants: Le 58 tour Eiffel, on the first floor
311 ft (95 m) above sea level; and the Le Jules Verne, a gastronomical restaurant on the second
floor, with a private lift. This restaurant has one star in the Michelin Red Guide. In January
2007, the multi-Michelin star chef Alain Ducasse was brought in to run Jules
Verne.[35]
Attempted relocation
According
to interviews given in the early 1980s, Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau negotiated a secret agreement
with French President Charles de Gaulle for the
tower to be dismantled and temporarily relocated to Montreal to serve as a
landmark and tourist attraction during Expo 67. The plan was allegedly vetoed by
the company which operated the tower out of fear that the French government
could refuse permission for the tower to be restored to its original location.[36]
Economics
The
American TV show Pricing the Priceless speculates that in 2011 the tower would
cost about $480,000,000 to build, that the land under the tower is worth
$350,000,000, and that the scrap value of the tower is worth $3,500,000. The TV
show estimates the tower makes a profit of about $29,000,000 per year, though
it is unlikely that the Eiffel Tower is managed so as to maximize profit.
It
costs $5,300,000 to repaint the tower, which is done once every seven years.
The electric bill is $400,000 per year for 7.5 million kilowatt-hours.
The
Tokyo Tower in Japan
is a very similar structure of very similar size. It was finished in 1958 at a
final cost of ¥2.8 billion ($8.4 million in 1958).
Reproductions
Main
article: List of
Eiffel Tower replicas
As
one of the most iconic images in the world, the Eiffel Tower has been the
inspiration for the creation of over 30 duplicates and similar towers around
the world.
Communications
Since
the beginning of the 20th century, the tower has been used for radio
transmission. Until the 1950s, an occasionally modified set of antenna wires
ran from the summit to anchors on the Avenue
de Suffren
and Champ de Mars. They were connected to
long-wave transmitters in small bunkers; in 1909, a permanent underground radio
centre was built near the south pillar and still exists today. On 20 November
1913, the Paris Observatory, using the
Eiffel Tower as an antenna, exchanged sustained wireless signals with the United
States Naval Observatory which used an antenna in Arlington, Virginia. The object
of the transmissions was to measure the difference in longitude between Paris
and Washington, D.C.[37] Today, both radio and
television stations broadcast their signals from the top of the Eiffel.
FM-radio
Frequency
|
kW
|
Service
|
87.8
MHz
|
10
|
|
89.0
MHz
|
10
|
|
89.9
MHz
|
6
|
|
90.4
MHz
|
10
|
|
90.9
MHz
|
4
|
Television
Analogue
Analogue
television signals ceased from the Eiffel Tower on 8 March 2011.
Frequency
|
VHF
|
UHF
|
kW
|
Service
|
182.25
MHz
|
6
|
—
|
100
|
|
479.25
MHz
|
—
|
22
|
500
|
|
503.25
MHz
|
—
|
25
|
500
|
|
527.25
MHz
|
—
|
28
|
500
|
|
543.25
MHz
|
—
|
30
|
100
|
|
567.25
MHz
|
—
|
33
|
100
|
Image copyright
claims
The
tower and its representations have long been in the public domain. However, a French court
ruled, in June 1990, that a special lighting display on the tower in 1989, for
the tower's 100th anniversary, was an "original visual creation"
protected by copyright. The Court of
Cassation,
France's judicial court of last resort, upheld the ruling in March 1992.[38] The Société d'exploitation de
la tour Eiffel (SETE) now considers any illumination of the tower to be under
copyright.[39] As a result, it is no longer
legal to publish contemporary photographs of the tower at night without
permission in France and some other countries.
The
imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation
for what was then the Société nouvelle d'exploitation de la tour Eiffel (SNTE),
Stéphane Dieu, commented in January 2005, "It is really just a way to
manage commercial use of the image, so that it isn't used in ways we don't
approve." However, it also potentially has the effect of prohibiting
tourist photographs of the tower at night from being published,[40] as well as hindering
non-profit and semi-commercial publication of images of the tower. Besides,
French doctrine and jurisprudence traditionally allow pictures incorporating a
copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the
main represented subject,[41] a reasoning akin to the De minimis rule. Thus,
SETE could not claim copyright on photographs or panoramas of Paris incorporating
the lit tower.
In popular culture
Main
article: Eiffel
Tower in popular culture
As
a global landmark, the Eiffel Tower is featured in media including films, video
games, and television shows.In a commitment ceremony in 2007, Erika Eiffel, an American woman famously
"married" the Eiffel Tower. Her relationship with the tower has been
the subject of extensive global publicity.[42]
Taller structures
Although
it was the world's tallest structure when completed in 1889, the Eiffel Tower
has since lost its standing both as the tallest lattice tower and as the
tallest structure in France.
Lattice
towers taller than the Eiffel Tower
Name
|
Pinnacle height
|
Year
|
Country
|
Town
|
Remarks
|
1,263 ft
(385 m)
|
1973
|
Ukraine
|
Kiev
|
||
1,230 ft
(375 m)
|
1985
|
Tashkent
|
|||
Pylons
of Yangtze River
Crossing
|
1,137 ft
(347 m)
|
2003
|
People's
Republic of China
|
Jiangyin
|
|
1,102 ft
(336 m)
|
2000
|
People's
Republic of China
|
Harbin
|
||
1,091 ft
(333 m)
|
1958
|
Japan
|
Tokyo
|
||
1,078 ft
(329 m)
|
1962
|
U.S.
|
Shorewood,
Wisconsin
|
||
1,075 ft
(328 m)
|
1957
|
U.S.
|
Atlanta,
Georgia
|
Architectural
structures in France taller than the Eiffel Tower
Further
information: List
of tallest structures in France
Name
|
Pinnacle height
|
Year
|
Structure type
|
Town
|
Remarks
|
350
m
|
1974
|
Guyed
Mast
|
Allouis
|
||
HWU transmitter
|
350
m
|
?
|
Guyed
Mast
|
Rosnay
|
Military
VLF-Transmitter, multiple masts
|
Viaduc de Millau
|
343
m
|
2004
|
Bridge
Pillar
|
Millau
|
|
TV Mast
Niort-Maisonnay
|
330
m
|
?
|
Guyed
Mast
|
Niort
|
|
Transmitter
Le Mans-Mayet
|
342
m
|
1993
|
Guyed
Mast
|
Mayet
|
|
La Regine transmitter
|
330
m
|
1973
|
Guyed
Mast
|
Military
VLF transmitter
|
|
Transmitter
Roumoules
|
330
m
|
1974
|
Guyed
Mast
|
Roumoules
|
Complete Edited by:- Sujay Mandal (M.A)